Introduction

As 2024 marked Europe's warmest year on record and south-eastern Europe endured its longest-ever heatwave, access to cooling has become a matter of survival. By 2050, Eurostat projects that nearly one in three Europeans will be over 65, a population acutely vulnerable to heat. Yet millions already face summer energy poverty, unable to afford adequate cooling during periods of extreme heat. unable to afford adequate cooling during periods of extreme heat.

In a continent warming faster than the global average, cooling is no longer simply a matter of comfort. It is becoming an essential component of climate adaptation, public health and building performance. As cooling demand continues to grow across Europe, policymakers, researchers and industry are increasingly focusing on solutions that can maintain indoor thermal comfort while limiting energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.

The policy framework driving the transition towards efficient cooling  

As cooling demand grows across Europe, EU legislation is increasingly recognising cooling as a key component of building performance, climate adaptation and energy system decarbonisation. Several legislative instruments now encourage Member States to reduce cooling demand, improve thermal comfort and accelerate the deployment of efficient and renewable cooling solutions. 

The revised Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD, EU/2024/1275) is the most directly relevant instrument. Article 7 requires all new public buildings to be zero-emission by 2028 and all new buildings by 2030. Annex I sets the calculation methodology covering the building envelope, heating and cooling systems, and renewables integration. Article 13 mandates building automation and control systems (BACS) with demand-driven, room level temperature management; passive cooling and overheating prevention are emphasised in Annex I and Recital 38. 

Cooling is also addressed through the Energy Efficiency Directive (EED, EU/2023/1791), which promotes efficient district heating and cooling networks and requires local heating and cooling planning under Article 26. Complementing this approach, the Renewable Energy Directive (RED III, EU/2023/2413, Article 23 and Delegated Regulation EU/2022/759) establishes a methodology for renewable cooling and incentivises heat pumps, district cooling, and free-cooling systems. 

An EU Heating and Cooling Strategy, expected in July 2026, will further accelerate decarbonisation of the sector.

Together, these policies reflect a broader shift in European energy and buildings policy. Rather than relying solely on active cooling technologies, the focus is increasingly moving towards reducing cooling demand through better building design, passive cooling strategies, smart controls and renewable energy integration.

Cooling-first design: how Member States are addressing overheating 

While EU legislation establishes the overall direction, Member States retain considerable flexibility in how cooling-related requirements are translated into national regulations. As a result, approaches vary across Europe, with some countries introducing specific overheating indicators and summer comfort requirements, while others address cooling indirectly through broader energy performance frameworks.

France: regulating summer thermal comfort 

France has developed one of Europe's most comprehensive approaches to addressing overheating in buildings. The Réglementation Environnementale 2020 (RE2020), which entered into force in January 2022, integrates summer thermal comfort as a core design objective alongside energy and carbon performance. It introduces a dedicated summer discomfort indicator, Degrés-Heures d'inconfort (DH), which quantifies cumulative hours of overheating weighted by intensity and sets maximum DH thresholds that buildings must not exceed. To meet these thresholds, designers are required to prioritise passive strategies such as natural ventilation, solar shading, and thermal mass rather than defaulting to mechanical air conditioning. This represents a significant regulatory shift: cooling demand must be addressed at the design stage, not compensated for by energy-intensive systems after the fact.

Spain: cooling requirements across climate zones 

Spain addresses cooling through its Código Técnico de la Edificación (CTE), the national building code, which sets thermal envelope requirements calibrated to different climate zones, particularly relevant for hot southern regions, alongside mandatory solar protection, shading measures and minimum ventilation standards. The document DB-HE (Basic Document on Energy Saving) within the CTE governs energy demand limits for both heating and cooling. Summer indoor thermal conditions are additionally considered within Spain's national building renovation strategy under the Long-Term Renovation Strategy required by the EPBD.

Italy: integrating cooling into building performance requirements 

Italy incorporates cooling into building energy performance calculations through a regulatory framework established by Legislative Decree 192/2005, subsequently amended by Law 90/2013 and the Interministerial Decrees of 26 June 2015. These instruments set energy performance requirements covering both heating and cooling seasons, and promote improved building envelopes, solar control, and efficient HVAC systems as integrated performance requirements. Italy's framework, while not always explicitly framed around summer comfort, has progressively tightened performance thresholds, indirectly reducing cooling energy demand in the building stock.

Although regulatory approaches differ, these examples reveal a common trend across Europe. Cooling is increasingly being addressed through better building design, improved thermal performance and greater attention to overheating risks. Rather than relying solely on mechanical cooling systems, national frameworks are progressively encouraging passive cooling measures, climate-responsive design and strategies that reduce cooling demand while maintaining indoor thermal comfort.

From passive cooling to smart cooling technologies 

Reducing cooling demand through building design remains the priority. However, passive cooling measures alone may not always be sufficient, particularly during prolonged heatwaves or in buildings with specific comfort requirements. As a result, smart cooling technologies are playing an increasingly important role in maintaining indoor thermal comfort while minimising energy consumption.

Recent advances in building automation, sensor technologies and adaptive controls are enabling cooling systems to respond more accurately to both environmental conditions and occupant needs. An example of how research and industry collaboration can deliver market-ready cooling solutions is a smart ceiling fan developed through two successive EU-funded Horizon 2020 (H2020) projects, namely 4RinEU and Cultural-E. Within 4RinEU, it was developed a smart control algorithm that automatically adapts fan speed based on indoor air temperature, relative humidity and occupants' activity level. The algorithm was then implemented into a commercial ceiling fan. In Cultural-E, both the technology and the fan design were further refined and validated through experimental studies with human participants, confirming that automatic fan control achieves the same thermal comfort as manual operation without requiring occupant intervention.

The resulting product enables low-energy, personalised cooling in a variety of building types as documented in a recent peer-reviewed publication. It is closely aligned with the EPBD's mandate under Article 13 for automated building control systems and room level temperature management and goes a step further by responding to individual occupant conditions rather than aggregate room setpoints. Moreover, fans also make cooling more affordable as both capital and running costs are significantly lower than air conditioning systems. Actual prices may vary, but the overall device and its installation are less expensive (and nearly always possible); the maintenance is negligible and its operational energy consumption (and related costs) are considerably lower than an air conditioning system. If used jointly with an air conditioning system, fans still enable relevant energy savings while keeping the same level of thermal comfort. 

_{Ceiling fan installed at Residenza I Girasoli, Castenaso, Italy (from the Cultural-E project). Photo credit: Abitcoop.}

New materials for climate-resilient cooling 

Alongside advances in smart cooling technologies, innovation is also taking place at the material level. Researchers and industry are increasingly exploring passive cooling materials capable of reducing overheating and improving thermal comfort without additional energy consumption. An example of this approach is provided by the H2020 MIRACLE project and the EIC-funded COOLCRETE initiative. Together, these projects demonstrate how European research can support the development and commercialisation of innovative passive cooling technologies. Within MIRACLE, researchers engineered concrete and cement-based materials as photonic metamaterials capable of expelling heat from buildings to outer space without any additional energy consumption. In real conditions, the resulting material achieved a 6°C cooling effect compared to standard concrete at peak solar radiation, with a 62% improvement in solar reflectance. Building on these results, COOLCRETE then pursued commercial translation: Heidelberg Materials has presented radiative cooling concrete among its sustainable construction innovation and the Spanish National Research Council selected the spin-off product PhotoKrete for commercialisation support. 

Because the technology requires no energy input and no mechanical components, it is inherently low-cost to operate, making it particularly relevant for buildings where active cooling is either inaccessible or unaffordable.

Cooling solutions in practice: examples from across Europe

Across Europe, buildings are already demonstrating how different cooling strategies can be successfully combined to improve thermal comfort, reduce cooling demand and strengthen climate resilience. While the specific approaches vary according to climate, building type and operational requirements, these examples illustrate how passive cooling, intelligent controls and integrated design can contribute to high-performing and comfortable indoor environments. 

• BedZED, completed in 2002 in South London, is one of Europe's most cited examples of low-energy residential design. Its cooling strategy relies entirely on passive measures: buildings are carefully oriented to maximise solar gain in winter while minimising it in summer, supported by external shading and deep window reveals that limit direct solar radiation. Natural cross-ventilation is facilitated through the building layout and high thermal mass (achieved through dense brick and concrete construction) dampens indoor temperature swings throughout the day. The iconic wind cowls on rooftops assist passive ventilation without mechanical energy input. The result is a neighbourhood that maintains acceptable summer comfort in an urban setting with minimal reliance on mechanical cooling, demonstrating the long-term viability of passive-first design.
• Campus 6.3, developed by Skanska in Bucharest, is a WELL Core & Shell Gold-certified office building representing a new generation of high-performance workplaces in central and eastern Europe. Its cooling strategy integrates advanced building systems that continuously optimise indoor thermal comfort in response to occupancy and external conditions. The building achieves approximately 35% energy savings compared to standard baseline buildings, driven by high-efficiency HVAC systems, optimised thermal envelope performance and strong natural ventilation strategies. Indoor environmental quality (including air quality, temperature, and humidity control) is a central design priority. The project also incorporates design measures to reduce urban heat island effects, including green areas and reflective surfaces, contributing to outdoor thermal comfort around the building.
• The EDGE Technologies headquarters in Amsterdam, designed by Fokkema & Partners, is among the first office buildings worldwide to achieve WELL v2 Platinum certification, placing occupant health and thermal wellbeing at the core of its design philosophy. A dense network of smart sensors monitors temperature, air quality, CO₂ levels and occupancy in real time, feeding an adaptive HVAC control system that adjusts cooling and ventilation on a zone by zone basis, reducing energy consumption while maintaining high comfort levels. Abundant natural lighting, biophilic design elements, and flexible spaces further support occupant comfort and productivity. The building demonstrates how intelligent building automation, closely aligned with the direction set by the EPBD Article 13, can deliver both energy efficiency and superior indoor environmental quality simultaneously.
• Ruiz Picasso 11, developed by MERLIN Properties in Madrid's AZCA business district, is a LEED Platinum, LEED Zero and WELL Gold-certified office building positioned as one of Europe's most advanced smart workplaces. Its cooling strategy centres on a passive thermal envelope: the lower module features Spain's first passive breathing façade, regulating internal temperatures through perimeter aerators without forced cavity ventilation, while the upper module is wrapped in a high-performance double-skin curtain wall, together minimising mechanical cooling loads at minimal energy cost and contributing to the building's net-zero energy rating. Adaptive HVAC and lighting systems respond dynamically to occupancy and conditions, supported by continuous real-time monitoring of energy consumption, air quality and system behaviour through a dedicated building performance platform. The project also integrates rooftop gardens and private terraces, softening the building's thermal footprint and improving outdoor comfort within the dense AZCA district. View our BUILD UP video of the Ruiz Picasso building.

Although these projects differ significantly in scale, location and function, they highlight a common principle: effective cooling does not rely on a single technology. Instead, it emerges from the combination of passive cooling measures, efficient systems, intelligent controls and climate-responsive design strategies adapted to local conditions.

Research and innovation projects supporting the cooling transition

Beyond individual buildings and technologies, European and national research programmes are helping to accelerate the transition towards more efficient, affordable and climate-resilient cooling solutions. These initiatives address a wide range of challenges, from district cooling and urban planning to passive cooling materials, building renovation and summer energy poverty.

Several projects focus on reducing cooling demand at the district and urban scale. REWARDHeat demonstrated next generation low-temperature district heating and cooling networks capable of recovering renewable and waste heat from sources such as rivers, supermarkets and data centres. By transforming thermal energy from a commodity into a service, the project provides a replicable model for expanding efficient district cooling systems across European cities.

At the urban planning level, ResCool developed advanced building-urban co-simulation tools to assess heat vulnerability under future climate scenarios and identify effective climate-resilient cooling strategies. The project delivered decision-support tools and policy recommendations that help bridge the gap between climate science and urban planning practice.

Other initiatives are addressing overheating and climate adaptation more broadly. RETURN, a large national partnership coordinated by the University of Naples, investigates multi-risk resilience under climate change, including heat stress and overheating risks affecting both buildings and communities. The programme demonstrates how national investment can support the integration of climate adaptation considerations into long-term planning and governance.

Local and regional authorities are increasingly recognising cooling as a strategic planning issue. PLAN4COLD supports municipalities in Italy, Greece, Portugal, Croatia and Spain in developing local heating and cooling plans, as required under Article 26 of the EED. By focusing specifically on the cooling challenge in Southern Europe, the project contributes to building local capacity and improving long-term planning for climate resilience.

The social dimension of cooling is addressed by COOLtoRISE, which focuses on summer energy poverty, an issue that has historically received less attention than winter heating poverty. Operating across Spain, Italy, Greece and Bulgaria, the project developed a common framework for addressing cooling-related energy vulnerability, trained Summer Energy Poverty Agents and implemented direct interventions supporting vulnerable households. The project also highlighted the links between thermal comfort, public health and social inclusion while producing policy recommendations to strengthen the integration of cooling into European energy poverty frameworks.

_{Table 1. List of EU-funded and national projects addressing cooling.}

Conclusion

Cooling is rapidly becoming one of the defining challenges of Europe's building transition. As temperatures rise and heatwaves become more frequent, ensuring access to efficient, affordable and climate-resilient cooling will be essential for protecting health, well-being and productivity across the continent.

The examples presented in this article demonstrate that effective cooling does not depend on a single solution. Passive cooling strategies, high-performance building envelopes, smart automation, innovative materials, district cooling networks and renewable energy technologies all have a role to play in reducing cooling demand while maintaining indoor thermal comfort. Increasingly, the focus is shifting from simply providing cooling to preventing overheating through better design, operation and planning.

While these examples demonstrate significant progress, important challenges remain. Summer energy poverty is largely overlooked, and few countries have clear cooling strategies. Existing buildings, especially social housing, lack protection against overheating. District cooling is limited beyond cities and insufficient data on cooling use and indoor comfort restrict informed policymaking and effective intervention at scale.

As the EU prepares its forthcoming Heating and Cooling Strategy, cooling is likely to move from a relatively overlooked aspect of building performance to a central pillar of climate adaptation, decarbonisation and resilience in the built environment. 

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The Topic of the Month (ToM) for July and August is ‘Cooling for all: making comfort sustainable and affordable in Europe's buildings’. We welcome contributions from professionals, researchers, local authorities and organisations working on sustainable cooling and energy efficiency in the built environment. Contributions may include articles, technical insights, project results, case studies, news, events or training materials that support knowledge sharing and strengthen collaboration across Europe's building community.

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